Discrete Mathematics Animations Etc.
Note: This webpage was created as a resource for
students of discrete mathematics, either those using one of my textbooks, Discrete Mathematics with Applications, 4th
edition, or Discrete Mathematics: An
Introduction to Mathematical Reasoning, or those using any other textbook.
The links were live when last checked. If one appears to be dead, it may be
possible to find the item by using a keyword search to discover its new
location. Please send comments, corrections, and suggestions for new items to susanna.s.epp@gmail.com.
January 2016 update: Because of the wealth of Java applets
created for mathematical topics, this website was originally called “Discrete
Mathematics Applets Etc.”. However in 2015 browsers
stopped supporting Java because of security problems, so the Java applets on
the original list no longer work. Most of those websites were deleted in
preparing the current list, but websites with collections containing both Java
applets and other animations have been retained. To the extent possible websites
with animations that use JavaScript or other animation software have been added
to replace ones that had to be deleted.
ANIMATIONS
AND/OR GENERAL INTEREST ARTICLES FOR A VARIETY OF MATHEMATICAL TOPICS
Interactive Mathematics Activities: www.cut-the-knot.org/Curriculum/index.shtml
This website has links to a very large number of interactive mathematics
activities arranged by mathematical topic. The activities listed under
combinatorics, algebra, logic, fractals, combinatorial games, probability,
social science, and puzzles & games are almost entirely discrete
mathematical, and many of those listed under arithmetic, miscellaneous
demonstrations, fallacies, math magic, and mathematical droodles
also involve discrete mathematics. Unfortunately most
of the activities use Java, but some use either JavaScript or Flash. The
following pages contain indications about which of these is used: http://www.cut-the-knot.org/algebra.shtml,
http://www.cut-the-knot.org/geometry.shtml,
and http://www.cut-the-knot.org/gamesList.shtml,
The Mathematics Millennium Project: http://mmp.maths.org/
The Mathematics Millennium Project is based at the University of Cambridge, UK.
Its website contains links to the NRICH
website, containing thousands of free resources designed to
develop problem solving skills and subject knowledge, and to the Plus website, which is an
online magazine with general interest articles about mathematics, including a
careers library.
The following NRICH websites contain scrambled steps for theorems and ask a
user to put them in correct order; http://nrich.maths.org/6333,
https://nrich.maths.org/1404. This
website has links to activities designed to lead students to success with more
advanced mathematical thinking: http://nrich.maths.org/9091.
Wolfram Demonstration Project: http://demonstrations.wolfram.com/
“Conceived by Mathematica creator and scientist Stephen Wolfram as a way to
bring computational exploration to the widest possible audience, the Wolfram
Demonstrations Project is an open-code resource that uses dynamic computation
to illuminate concepts in science, technology, mathematics, art, finance, and a
remarkable range of other fields.” Among its thousands of demonstrations are a
very large number for mathematics. To interact with them, a user must download
a free Wolfram CDF player. Mathematica
is not needed to use the demonstrations, but users who have Mathematica can experiment and modify
code themselves.
Doug
Ensley Interactive Flash Exercises: http://webspace.ship.edu/deensley/discretemath/flash/
This website contains 75 exercises, which were written to accompany Introduction
to Discrete Mathematics: Mathematical Reasoning with Puzzles, Patterns and
Games, by Doug Ensley and Winston Crawley. Topics include puzzles,
patterns, and mathematical thinking (including sentential and predicate logic);
number puzzles and sequences; a primer of mathematical writing (proof and
disproof); sets and Boolean
algebra; functions and relations; combinatorics; probability; and graphs and
trees.
State University of California Reference Notes: www.math.csusb.edu/notes/
This website contains links to notes on the following topics: set theory,
symbolic logic, methods of proof, basic set theory proofs, functions,
relations, binary operations, and groups. The Math Tools pages contain
interactive activities.
The Shodor Education
Foundation Mathematical Activities: www.shodor.org/interactivate/lessons/index.html
This website contains interactive activities on Number and Operation, Geometry
and Measurement, Function and Algebra, and Probability and Data Analysis.
Derive Labs: www.brookscole.com/cgi-wadsworth/course_products_wp.pl?fid=M20b&product_isbn_issn=0534359450&discipline_number=1
These labs were developed by Nancy Hagelgans at
Ursinus College to accompany parts of Discrete Mathematics with
Applications.
Martindate's 'The Reference Desk': www.martindalecenter.com
This is a huge reference website. The following are some of the subsections
that contain interactive activities for discrete mathematics. Many, but not
all, of the activities are Java applets: (www.martindalecenter.com/Calculators2_6_AD.html#COMP-DISCRETE),
encryption/cryptography (www.martindalecenter.com/Calculators2_6_EH.html#COMP-ENC),
Fibonacci numbers (www.martindalecenter.com/Calculators2_6_EH.html#COMP-FIBON),
graph theory (www.martindalecenter.com/Calculators2_6_EH.html#COMP-GR-TH),
logic), and number theory (www.martindalecenter.com/Calculators2_6_NZ.html#COMP-NT).
The Math
Page: http://www.themathpage.com/index.html
This website, by Lawrence Spector, Borough of Manhattan Community College, The
City University of New York, contains complete interactive courses in
arithmetic, plane geometry, algebra, topics in trigonometry, topics in
precalculus, an approach to calculus, and the evolution of the real numbers.
Earliest Known Uses of Symbols
and Terms: These two websites
are the work of Jeff Miller, Gulf High School, New Port Richey, Florida. They
do not contain applets, but they do contain the earliest uses Miller has
discovered of a very large number of mathematical symbols and mathematical
terms.
Online Encyclopedia of
Integer Sequences: This is another important webpage that
does not contain applets. ”Since the mid-1960's Neil Sloane
has been collecting integer sequences from every possible source. His goal is
to have all interesting number sequences in the table. At the present time the
table contains over 100000 sequences…. The main table is a collection of number
sequences arranged in lexicographic order. The entry for each sequence gives:
the beginning of the sequence; its name or description; any references or
links; any formulae; cross-references to other sequences; the name of the
person who submitted it, etc.”
TIPS FOR WRITING
MATHEMATICS
A Guide to Writing
Mathematics by Dr. Kevin Lee, Purdue University Calumet: This is an
attractively written article with good advice.
A Guide to Writing in
Mathematics Classes by Dr.
Annalisa Crannell, Franklin & Marshall College:
This guide has been widely used in classes throughout the country. Among other
things, it contains a checklist for students to use as they write answers to
problems.
How To Write a Solution by Richard Rusczyk & Mathew Crawford: This article (actually
written for advanced high school students preparing for mathematical
competitions) gives examples of bad and good ways to write solutions to
challenging mathematical problems. Reading through the two versions gives a
vivid sense for why the good solution is better than the bad one. The authors
have tried to make the presentation amusing as well as helpful. (Table of
Contents: Have a Plan; Readers Are Not Interpreters; U s e S p a c e; sdrawkcaB knihT, Write Forwards; Name
Your Characters; A Picture Is Worth a Thousand Words; Solution Readers, not Mindreaders; Follow the Lemmas; Clear Casework; Proofreed; Bookends)
A Short Guide to Writing Mathematics (a guide
for undergraduates) by Stephen B Maurer, Professor of Mathematics, Swarthmore
College: This link describes a book about mathematical writing that can be
downloaded from Professor Maurer. It also contains links to a few freely available
sections of the book: Advice on Note Taking, Common Work Errors in Writing
Mathematics, and a complete table of contents for the book.
LOGIC
ASL Committee on Logic Education: http://www.ucalgary.ca/aslcle/logic-courseware
This is a list of sites with resources and/or courses that use logic software.
This list is no longer actively maintained, but many of the links are still
current.
Multiple-choice quiz on basic concepts for
logic:
http://scherk.pbworks.com/w/page/14864234/Quiz%3A%20Logic
Most of these questions were written by Terence
Tao. This applet may not work when advertisement-blockers are enabled
(because the applet needs to read from other web pages). Additional quizzes on
other mathematical topics are at http://scherk.pbworks.com/w/page/14864181/FrontPage.
Complete, Interactive, Free, Online Textbooks for
Introductory Symbolic Logic:
§ Logic Café: http://thelogiccafe.net/PLI/
The Logic Café was developed by John F. Halpin, Oakland
University. Its chapters and tutorials
include Basic Concepts, Sentence Logic, Truth Tables, SL Symbolizations, SL
Derivations, Predicate Logic, PL Semantics and Symbolizations, PL Derivations,
Predicate Logic with Identity. The Logic
Café contains tutorials, reference
material, and many exercises with immediate feedback about the correctness
of students’ answers.
Truth Tables
·
Truth Table Practice: www.math.csusb.edu/notes/quizzes/tablequiz/tablepractice.html
This animation, from California State University, San
Bernardino, presents
a user with a blank truth table for parts of a logical expression in P and Q, asks the user to fill in truth values for the various columns,
and indicates whether or not the user’s answer is correct. The user may then
click a button to obtain a new problem.
Tarski's
World Animations:
The use of Tarski's World for teaching logic was developed by Jon Barwise and
John Etchemendy. (See www-csli.stanford.edu/hp/CVandNR.pdf
and www-csli.stanford.edu/hp/#LOFOL.)
The following are Wolfram demonstration animations implementing two-dimensional
versions of Tarski's World. To use them, as with the other Wolfram
demonstrations, one must download a free Wolfram CDF player.
Logic Circuits
http://www.neuroproductions.be/logic-lab/
“The LOGIC
LAB is a program for simulating simple circuits of logic gates on the screen.”
It is “an experimental project of freelance Flash Platform developer Kris
Temmerman,” who lives in Antwerp, Belgium.
Knights and Knaves Logic Puzzles: http://philosophy.hku.hk/think/logic/knights.php
These 382 puzzles, which get progressively more difficult, are presented
without solutions. They were generated by a computer program written by Zachary
Ernst, formerly a philosophy professor and currently a software engineer.
Prolog: http://www.calvin.edu/~rpruim/courses/m156/F99/prolog/
These materials, developed by Randall Pruim, Calvin
College, “were used in conjunction with the predicate logic part of a discrete
math course.” They include “a prolog interpreter that can be run over the WWW,
an example from Monty Python, examples, exercises,” etc.
Logic Proof Developer/Checkers
SETS
Multiple-choice quiz on basic concepts for sets: http://scherk.pbworks.com/w/page/14864241/Quiz%3A%20Sets
Most of these questions were written by Terence
Tao. This applet may not work when advertisement-blockers are enabled
(because the applet needs to read from other web pages). Additional quizzes on
other mathematical topics are at http://scherk.pbworks.com/w/page/14864181/FrontPage.
Venn Diagrams
·
Venn Diagram Definition:
http://www.shodor.org/interactivate/activities/vdiagram/indexflash.html
This interactive animation, from the Shodor
Educational Foundation, asks a user to place an item in the correct region of a
Venn diagram. For instance, if the three regions represent even integers,
palindromic integers, and perfect squares, respectively, the number 121 should
be placed in the intersection of the regions representing palindromic integers
and perfect squares but not in the intersection of all three regions. Feedback
is provided about the correctness of the user’s answer.
·
Venn Diagram Regions: http://www.math.csusb.edu/notes/quizzes/venn1/venn1.html
This interactive animation, from Dan Rinne,
California State University, San Bernardino, displays Venn diagram for sets A, B,
and C and contains exercises testing
a user’s ability to identify various regions in the diagram, such as A Ç (Bc Č
C).
·
Survey of Venn Diagrams: http://www.combinatorics.org/Surveys/ds5/VennEJC.html
This webpage does not contain animations, but it provides
excellent information, pictures, and information about Venn diagrams involving
four or more sets.
PROOF
Proof Designer: www.cs.amherst.edu/~djv/pd/pd.html
This is a java applet, which was written by Dan Velleman
of Amherst College "to write outlines of proofs in elementary set theory,
under the guidance of the user." Proof Designer's approach to
proof-writing is similar to the approach used in Velleman's
book How
to Prove it.
DC Proof: http://www.dcproof.com
This free PC-based software “enables students to write formal proofs using
pull-down menus of the simplified rules of logic and set theory. A built-in,
self-study tutorial takes the student from proof of the commutativity of the
AND-operator to resolutions of Bertrand Russell's Barber Paradox and the
paradox of the universal set.”
Flash Applications: http://webspace.ship.edu/deensley/discretemath/flash/
Several of the Flash applications on Doug Ensley’s website (see above) give
assistance for development of proofs and counterexamples.
Find the Flaw: www.math.toronto.edu/mathnet/falseProofs/
This page, from the University of Toronto Mathematics Network, contains
examples of false proofs whose flaw can be discovered through interactive
activity.
Proof That the Square
Root of 2 Is Irrational: http://nrich.maths.org/public/viewer.php?obj_id=1404
This
interactive animation challenges the user to unscramble a proof of the
irrationality of the square root of 2 that is based on the
fact that every integer greater than 1 has a unique factorization as a
product of primes. It is part of the Mathematics
Millennium Project (see above).
NUMBER
THEORY AND CRYPTOGRAPHY
Prime Numbers
Extended Euclidean Algorithm: http://www.math.sc.edu/~sumner/numbertheory/euclidean/euclidean.html
This interactive demonstration, by David Sumner at the University of South
Carolina, calculates the greatest common divisor of two positive integers,
derives it as a linear combination of the two numbers, and displays the
intermediate steps.
Modular Inverse:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mgvA3z-vOzc
This youtube video, titled “Modular
Inverse Made Easy”
shows, step-by-step, how to calculate the inverse of 197 modulo 3000, or,
equivalently, how to find the solution to 197d ≡
1 (mod 3000). It is part of a set created by Randell Heyman, a businessman,
researcher, and lecturer at the University of New South Wales in
Australia.
Linear Diophantine Equation: https://www.alpertron.com.ar/QUAD.HTM
This interactive demonstration finds the general solution for a Diophantine
equation of the form ax2 + bxy + cy2
+ dx + ey + f = 0, where a-f are integers and any can
be chosen to be zero. It was written by Dario Alpern,
an electrical engineer in Buenos Aires, Argentina.
Fast Modular Exponentiation : https://www.khanacademy.org/computing/computer-science/cryptography/modarithmetic/p/fast-modular-exponentiation
This website is part of a collaboration about algorithms between the Khan
Academy and Dartmouth college professors Tom Cormen
and Devin Balkcom. It contains a JavaScript animation
to compute xy mod z.
A user can change the code to input x,
y, and z and then click on a smiling green face to see the result and all
the intermediate steps.
Chinese Remainder Theorem: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ru7mWZJlRQg
This youtube video, titled “The Chinese
Remainder Theorem Made Easy,” is part of a set created by Randell Heyman, a businessman,
researcher, and lecturer at the University of New South Wales in Australia. It
explains how to use the Chinese remainder theorem to solve for x given
that x ≡ 2 (mod 3), x ≡ 2 (mod 4), and x ≡ 1 (mod 5).
Caesar Cipher: http://www.shodor.org/interactivate/activities/caesar/index.html
In this interactive
demonstration letters of
the alphabet are coded as: A ® 0, B ® 1, . . . , Z
® 25, “and then
the numbers are changed via an affine (linear) transformation to new, coded
numbers. The coding function has the form: Y = A * X + B, where X is the uncoded number, A and B are constants (known to allies, but
unknown to enemies) and Y is the calculated, coded number. The arithmetic is
done mod 26 to ensure that we get numbers back that can be translated back to
letters before sending the coded message.” The animation allows a user to enter
text and specify the values of A and B. It then displays the converted text.
The applet contains a link to Caesar Cipher II, in which the user enters a
text, which is converted automatically using a Caesar cipher. The user is then
asked to determine A and B. Finally, there is a link to Caesar Cipher III, in
which only a converted text is given and the user is
challenged to decode it.
The
Crypto Tutorial: http://www.ti89.com/cryptotut/home.htm
This website contains a complete tutorial that combines interactive web pages
and instructional text and is aimed at “anybody interested in learning
cryptography.” The tutorial was developed by Nils Hahnfeld
with the assistance of Dr. Michael Hortmann and
Salvatore Angiletta, both from the University of
Bremen, Germany. It covers topics from the Caesar cipher through
multiplication, linear, polyalphabetic, and RSA ciphers.
JavaScript RSA Cryptography Demo: http://www-cs-students.stanford.edu/~tjw/jsbn/rsa2.html
This website, developed by Tom Wu at Stanford University, contains a “pure
JavaScript implementation of large-integer math, capable of performing
useful-sized (512-bit, 1024-bit) RSA encryption in almost any Web browser.” It
allows a user-entered plaintext string to be automatically encrypted and a
user-entered ciphertext to be automatically decrypted. Additional information
about the program is at http://www-cs-students.stanford.edu/~tjw/jsbn/.
MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION AND RECURSION
Tromino Puzzle Information and Animation: www.amherst.edu/~nstarr/puzzle.html
Norton Starr of Amherst College developed an animation to make it convenient
for people to experiment with the problem of covering a deficient 8 x 8 checkerboard with L-trominoes
(L-shaped dominoes). The website contains historical information about the
puzzle, variations on it, and a list of references. The website also contains a
Java applet, developed by Chris Eliot, which was designed to explore how to
cover deficient m x n checkerboards for a variety of values
of m and n.
Tower of Hanoi and Reeve’s Puzzles
COUNTING
AND PROBABILITY
Probability Calculator: http://statistics.berkeley.edu/~stark/Java/Html/Venn3.htm
This interactive demonstration is from Professor P.B. Stark in the Statistics
department at the University of California Berkeley. It allows a user to move
Venn diagram representations for sets A,
B, and C inside a universe S,
and it calculates the probabilities of sets, such as A Č B
and
(A Ç B)c, given
various user-generated probabilities for A,
B, and C .
The Monty Hall Problem:
http://www.grand-illusions.com/simulator/montysim.htm
This interactive demonstration, which seems only to work on Internet Explorer,
is from the website Grand Illusions. It lets a user play multiple times,
keeping track of the number of times the user won by switching and the number
of times the user won by not switching. To get a good sense for the probabilities,
one must play the game quite a few times.
The Pigeonhole Principle:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ROnetLvbl6M
This youtube video, titled “The Pigeonhole
Principle Made Easy,”
is another created by Randell Heyman, a businessman, researcher, and lecturer
at the University of New South Wales in Australia. It shows how to use the
pigeonhole principle to obtain answers to three very different questions.
Pascal's Triangle: http://ptri1.tripod.com
This page contains many illustrations and some interactive activities for
Pascal's triangle.
Catalan Numbers: http://mathforum.org/advanced/robertd/catalan.html
This page, by Robert M. Dickau, is not animated, but it contains a set of very
nice pictures illustrating the many ways Catalan numbers occur in various
situations. Other mathematical figures by the same author are at http://mathforum.org/advanced/robertd/index.html.
GRAPH
THEORY AND APPLICATIONS
Missionaries and Cannibals: www.plastelina.net/games/game2.html
and http://www.aiai.ed.ac.uk/~gwickler/missionaries.html
The first website contains an interactive
animation for trying to solve the
missionaries and cannibals puzzle. The second website, from Gerhard Wickler’s at the University of Edinburgh, contains a graph
that shows the solution.
The Wolf, the Goat, and the Cabbage: http://perso.wanadoo.fr/jeux.lulu/html/anglais/loupChe/loupChe1.htm
This is an interactive animation for trying to help a farmer get a
wolf, a goat, and a cabbage from one side of a river to the other. It is from
the French website “Lulu’s games.” The
Leaping sheep puzzle interactive animation from this website is also good (http://perso.wanadoo.fr/jeux.lulu/html/anglais/lomouton/mouton.htm#). While trial-and-error can be used to solve
the puzzles, a systematic strategy involves drawing a graph and finding a path
from the initial state to the desired final state.
Transitive Closure and Minimum Spanning Tree: http://www3.cs.stonybrook.edu/~skiena/combinatorica/animations/graphpower.html
and https://www3.cs.stonybrook.edu/~skiena/combinatorica/animations/mst.html
These animations are among the demos illustrating Combinatorica, which is software
developed by Steven Skiena, a professor at the State
University of New York at Stony Brook, for teaching and doing research in
discrete mathematics.
Constructing
an Euler Circuit: https://www.geogebra.org/m/pVa6Yktj
This animation illustrates the steps involved in constructing an Euler circuit
for a graph. It is on the GeoGebra website and was developed by George Sturr.
Traveling
Salesman Problem: https://archive.geogebra.org/en/upload/files/english/jwelker/Discrete_TSP_5_cities2.html
This interactive animation gives users a choice of weights for the edges in a
five-vertex graph and a choice of edges for reaching all the vertices in the
graph. The total weight is computed for each combination of choices. The
animation was created using GeoGebra by Jerel L. Welker.
ALGORITHMS
AND ALGORITHM EFFICIENCY
Algorithm
Collections
·
https://www.khanacademy.org/computing/computer-science/algorithms
Khan Academy “partnered with Dartmouth college professors Tom Cormen and Devin Balkcom to teach
introductory computer science algorithms, including searching, sorting,
recursion, and graph theory.” The pages contain “a combination of articles,
visualizations, quizzes, and coding challenges.”
·
https://www.cs.usfca.edu/~galles/visualization/Algorithms.html
David Galles, at the University of San Francisco, has
a collection of JavaScript interactive animations for over fifty computer
algorithms. They are grouped into Basics, Recursion, Indexing, Sorting,
Heap-like Data Structures, Graph Algorithms, Dynamic Programming, Geometric Algorithms,
and Other. A user has a choice of input
values and can control animation speed, pauses, and backward/forward movement.
The animations “can run in just about any modern browser -- including iOS
devices like the iPhone and iPad, and even the web browser in the Kindle.”
·
http://visualgo.net/
VisuAlgo was created in 2011 by Dr Steven Halim,
National University of Singapore, “as a tool to help his students better
understand data structures and algorithms, by allowing them to learn the basics
on their own and at their own pace.” Users of its twenty interactive animations
can control animation speed, pauses,
and backward/forward movement, as well as being able to see annotated code that
is synced with the steps of the animation. The sorting algorithm page
includes Bubble, Select, Insert, Merge, Quick, R-Quick, Count, and Radix. The
shortest path algorithm page includes BFS, Bellman Ford’s, and Dijkstra’s
algorithms. A number of the visualizations are accompanied
by text that explains the underlying algorithm. Those who click on “Training”
obtain access to quizzes with answers.
·
http://optlab-server.sce.carleton.ca/POAnimations2007/Default.html
This collection of over twenty JavaScript animations was developed to accompany
the online textbook Practical
Optimization: a Gentle Introduction by John W. Chinneck,
Systems and Computer Engineering, Carleton University. They were created by
Kelly Kinahan and Jennifer Pryor and are open
source. The animations are grouped under
the following headings: Linear Programming, Networks, Integer Programming,
Heuristics for Discrete Optimization, Dynamic Programming, and Nonlinear
Programming. Many, such as the one for
Dijkstra’s algorithm, have an explanation for each step.
·
www.faust.fr.bw.schule.de/mhb/backtrack/backtren.htm
This interactive animation, from Dr. Hans-Bernhard Meyer,
Faust-Gymnasium, Germany, illustrates backtracking algorithms by showing users
a puzzle for which the solution requires backtracking. Users may either try to
solve the puzzle on their own or click on “automatically” to see a visual
representation of the solution. The page contains links to similar animations
for the eight-queens puzzle and for 5x5 magic squares.
·
http://math.hws.edu/eck/jsdemo/sortlab.html
David Eck developed JavaScript animations as an accompaniment for his textbook,
The
Most Complex Machine, to illustrate the actions for five sorting
algorithms: BubbleSort, SelectionSort, InsertionSort, MergeSort, and QuickSort. A user can pause,
change to a step mode, experiment with several different initial states, and
choose one of two execution speeds.
FINITE-STATE
AUTOMATA AND TURING MACHINES
Finite-State Automata: http://ivanzuzak.info/noam/webapps/fsm_simulator/
This interactive animation was created by Ivan Zuzak and Vedrana Jankovic,
software engineers for Google and GitHub who currently live in Zurich. A user can explore deterministic and
non-deterministic finite-state machines and non-deterministic finite automata
with epsilon transitions. The software can produce simple random examples, or
users can generate their own by inputting a regular expression or defining a
machine directly. The software will simulate the automaton and display the
transition graph.
Turing Machine
Simulators
·
http://ideonexus.com/2009/02/05/JavaScript-turing-machine/
This website, by Ryan
Somma, a professional software developer, illustrates
the operation of a very simple Turing machine along with an explanation for how
the machine works.
·
http://morphett.info/turing/turing.html
This interactive animation simulates the action of a Turing Machine. It was
developed by Anthony Morphett, a
mathematics tutor and lecturer at the Australian University of Melbourne,
School of Mathematics and Statistics. A user can open an example program, such
as a palindrome detector using various inputs, and run the program at various
speeds to watch how the Turing machine operates on it.
Webpage
last revised: 14 March 2020
Susanna S. Epp
susanna.s.epp@gmail.com