Errors in the Process of Human Inquiry
Now let us look at some of the errors that are encountered when you and I gain knowledge about the world through direct experience. We are going to identify these common problems, because they help us understand how scientific research is conducted.
I. Errors in the Process of Human Inquiry. These are some of the errors that you and I make when trying to gain knowledge through direct experience.
A. Errors in Observation.
1. Inaccurate. Our observations are full of mistakes.
a. Ignore what is going on around us. Often we don’t take note of what is going on around us. That is, we don’t pay a great deal of attention to many things in our environment.
b. Sometimes we see things incorrectly. Sometimes we see things the way they really aren't.
2. Selective Observations. If we believe that a pattern exists, then our observations will tend to confirm to the pattern.
a. We pay more attention to events that fit our preconceived ideas than those that don’t. We pay more attention to things that we expect to see.
Examples:
If you believe that women are worse drivers than men, you are more likely to notice woman who are poor drivers, than woman who are good drivers or men who are poor drivers.
If you just break-up with your boyfriend and girlfriend, and you think that you are the only single person in the world. What do you see where ever you go? – you probably see couples every where (usually happy couples at that) -- it is what you expect to see.
b. We interpret ambiguous events and behavior so that they fit our preconceived ideas.
Examples:
What if you see a nicely dressed person running down the street, what do you think?
What if you see a poorly dressed person doing the same thing, what do you think?
B. Errors in Reasoning. Errors we make when reaching conclusions.
1. Overgeneralization. We take what we learn from a select few observations and apply it to a wide range events, people, and situations.
Example:
When I first moved to town two people at my bank who were very unfriendly. I now assume that everyone who works at my bank is unfriendly.
2. Discount observations that don’t fit our expectations. We explain away observations that don’t fit our beliefs about the world. When observations don’t fit what we expect, we find ways to explain them away. The facts don't count -- we discount the facts and maintain our beliefs. "It was the exception to the rule" -- rather than change the rule, we ignore the evidence.
Examples:
Let’s say you think that young men in fraternities just like to party, and you meet a guy from a frat who doesn’t like to drink that much. What do you think? (he’s not a real frat boy).
3. Illogical Reasoning. Sometimes our interpretations are not based upon logical, sound reasoning. Assumes events are causally related even though not logically or empirically supported.
Example:
One day I dressed up very nice and I let my class go early. Another day I happened to be dressed up and I also let class go early. The third time I dressed up, everyone was getting really restless during the second half of class. They assumed that they were going to be let go early again. People try to see patterns or connections between events when sound reasoning does not support such a connection.
Just because two things happen together, does not mean that they are related. Must be some logical, not hypothetical reason for events to co-occur.
C. Errors in the Process The way we develop knowledge is problematic.
1. Premature Closure. Once a conclusion has been reached, often we don’t investigate or explore the issue any further.
Once we think we have an answer, we don't re-address the issue.
Example:
If you conclude that someone is unpleasant to be around, you’ll probably always think they are unpleasant..
2. Private Process. Many times we don’t share what we are thinking or how we reached our conclusions (i.e., observations, interpretations) with the world at large. We often only share our thoughts with those who already agree with us. Thus, our observations, reasoning, and interpretations are often not open to critical examination and scrutiny by others.
Conclusion
Gaining beliefs about the world through Tradition, Authority, and Experience sometimes leads to knowledge that is inaccurate -- or biased.
In contrast to tradition, authority, and experience, the scientific approach to developing knowledge employs safeguards that hopefully reduce the amount of error and bias commonly found in the other approaches.