For November 2: Read the following African myths and answer the questions below.

1. Describe their relationship between God and humanity as presented in traditional African religion.

2. In what ways do African myths and literature address the human fear of death?

3. What explains the separation between God and humanity?

4. How does traditional African religion differ from other faiths we have studied?

Myths on the Origin of Death
THE PERVERTED MESSAGE In primeval times, God had familiar intercourse with men and gave them all they needed. This state, how- ever, came to an end when some women who were grinding their food became embarrassed by God's presence and told him to go away, and beat him with their pestles. God then withdrew from the world, and left its government to the spirits.

Afterward God sent a goat from heaven to the seven human beings on earth with the following message: "There is -something called death. One day it will kill some of you. Even if you die, however, you will not be altogether lost. You will come to live with me in the sky."

On the way, the goat lingered at a bush in order to cat, and when God discovered this he sent a sheep with the same message. But the sheep changed the message to the effect that men should die, and that as far as they were concerned this would be the end of all things. When the goat then arrived with her true message, men would not believe it. They had already accepted the message delivered by the sheep. Shortly afterward the first case of death took place, and God taught men to bury their dead. He also told them that as a foil to death they should be given the capacity to multiply. ,
According to another version, God sent the sheep with eternal life as a gift to men. But the he-goat ran on ahead and gave them death as a gift from God. The)- eagerly accepted this gift, as they did not know what death was. The sheep arrived after a while, but it was too late.

MAN CHOOSES DEATH IN EXCHANGE FOR CHILDREN
- One day God asked the first human couple who then lived in heaven what kind of death they wanted, that of the moon or that of the banana. Because the couple wondered in dismay aboi4t the implications of the two modes of death, God explained to them: the banana puts forth shoots which take its place and the moon it- self comes back to life. The couple considered for a long time before they made their choice. If they elected to be, childless they would avoid death, but they would also be very lonely, would themselves be forced to carry out all the work, and would not have anybody to work and strive for. Therefore they prayed to God for children, well aware of the consequences of their choice. And their prayer was granted. Since that time man's sojourn is short on this earth.

[The Efe are a small branch of the Mbuti hunting and gathering peoples who live in the ituri forest of Zaire. They are seminomadic and often live in symbiotic relationships with nearby black African groups. This myth is from the Efe.]

FORBIDDEN FRUIT God created the first human being Ba-atsi with the help of the moon. He kneaded the body into shape, covered it with a skin, and poured in blood. When the man had thus been given life, God whispered in his car that he, Ba-atsi, should beget children, and upon them he should impress the following prohibition: "Of all the trees of the forest you may eat, but of the Tahu tree you may not eat." Ba-atsi had many children, impressed upon them the prohibition, and then retired to heaven. At first men respected the commandment they had been given, and lived happily. But one day a pregnant woman was seized with an irresistible desire to eat of the forbidden fruit. She tried to persuade her husband to give her some of it. At first he refused, but after a time he gave way. He stole into the wood, picked a Tahu fruit, peeled it, and hid the peel among the leaves. But the moon had seen his action and re- ported it to God. God was so enraged over man's disobedience that as punishment he sent death among them.
[The following myth comes from the Darasa, one of a cluster of ancient Cushitic peoples who practice intensive agriculture by irrigation and terracing of mountain slopes in southern Ethiopia.]

MAN CHOOSES DEATH IN EXCHANGF FOR FIRE
Formerly men had no fire but ate all their food raw. At that time they did not need to die for when they became old, God made them young again. One day they decided to beg God for fire. They sent a messenger to God to convey their request. God replied to the messenger that he would give him fire if he was prepared to die. The man took the fire from God, but ever since then all men must die.
[Madagascar, the source of this next myth, lies in the Indian Ocean off the southeastern coast of Africa.]
Yoruba Proverbs

Only the man whom his child buries has really got a child.

It is the honour of the father that allows the son to walk about proudly. Two Yoz-uba Myths of Creation
THE CREATION OF MAN Obatala made man out of earth. After shaping men and women he gave them to Oludumax to blow in the breath of life.
One day Obatala drank palm wine. Then he started to make hunchbacks and cripples, albinos and blind men.    .
From that day onwards hunchbacks and albinos and  all deformed persons are sacred to Obatala. But his worshipers are forbidden to drink palm wine. Obatala is still the one who gives shape to the new babe in the mother's womb.

Myths on the Separation of A4an from God

[The following myth comes from the Ngombe, one of the many Mongo groups who live in the heart of the equatorial rain forest of Zaire. Their language and culture form part of the larger Bantu-speaking peoples of central and southern Africa.]

WITHDRAM'AL OF GOD Akongo was not always as be is now. In the beginning the creator lived among men; but men were quar- relsome. One day they had a big quarrel and Akongo left them to themselves. He went and hid in the forest and nobody has seen him since. People today can't tell what he is like.

[The next two are from the Ashanti peoples of modern Ghana. They are one of the populous Akan cultural complex, one of whose characteristics is matrilineal descent. The Ashanti state, founded around 1680, became a principal political power on the Gold Coast during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Its greatness lay in part because of the European trade and in part because it integrated under its king (the asante- hene) and ruling council many more of the Akan peoples into one state than had been achieved before. The Ashanti were also splendid craftsmen whose-court art, textiles, and gold weights are among the highest achievements of West African .]

THE TONN'ER TO HEAVEN Long, long ago Onyankopon lived on earth, or at least was very near to us. Now there was a certain old woman who used to pound her mashed yams and the pestle kept knocking up against Onyankopon, who was not then high in the sky. So Onyankopon said to the old woman: "Why do you keep doing this to me.' Be- cause of what you are doing I am going to take myself a%-.-ay up in the sky." And of a truth he did so.
Now the people could no longer approach Onyankopon. But the old woman thought of a way to reach him and bring him back. She instructed her children to go and search for all the mortars they could find and bring them to her. Then she told them to pile one mortar on top of another til they reached to where Onyankopon was. And her children did so, they piled up many mortars, one on top of another, til they needed only one more mortar to reach Onyankopon.
Now, since they could not find another mortar any- where, their grandmother the old woman said to them: "Take one out from the bottom and put it on top to make them reach." So her children removed a mortar from the bottom and all the mortars rolled and fell to the ground, causing the death of many people.

TWO FROGS
One day two frogs fell into a calabash of milk and couldn't get out. They swam around for a while, then one of them tired out and said,
"Today my days are finished."
So he gave up and sank to the bottom and died.
But the other frog kept on swimming and swimming. He churned the milk so hard with all of his swimming, that it turned into butter. The frog climbed on top of the ball of butter and jumped out of the calabaih.
God said, "Rise so that I may help you."

LIFE IS BETTER THAN M'EALTH
Once there was a man who was so poor he didn't know what to do. So he %vent to the king and said,
"I don't have anything to eat for today, or for tomor- row either. I don't have anything at all in the world save this loincloth. I'm tired of living. I want you to kill me.
The king said, "All right."
He called some soldiers and told them to kill the man so that he could find rest. The soldiers were about to dispatch him when another came by and said,
"If you kill him, please give me his loincloth." When the poor man heard that he said,
"Stop' Take me back to the king. I have something to
Say."So they took him back and the king asked them ,vhat happened. The poor man fell on his knees and said,
"Your highness, let me go. Today I have seen some- one poorer than I am. Tnilv, life is great." The king said,
"Be off with you and thank God that he has given you life and health."

Listen more often to things rather than beings. Hear the fire's voice,
Hear the voice of water.
In the wind hear the sobbing of the trees, It is our forefathers breathing.

The dead are not gone forever. They are in the paling shadows And in the darkening shadows.

The dead are not beneath the ground, They are in the rustling tree, in the murmuring wood, in the still water,
In the flowing water, in the lonely place, in the crowd; The dead are not dead.

Listen more often to things rather than beings. Hear the fire's voice.
Hear the voice of water. in the wind hear the sobbing of the trees. It is the breathing of our forefathers
Who are not gone, not beneath the ground, not dead.

The dead are not gone forever. They are in a woman's breast,
A child's crying, a glowing ember. The dead are not beneath the earth, They are in the flickering fire,
In the weeping plant, the groaning rock, The wooded place, the home. The dead are not dead.

Listen more often to things rather than beings. Hear the fire's voice,
Hear the voice of water. In the wind hear the sobbing of the trees. it is the breath of our forefathers.
 
 

For October 19:

The Old Oligarch

This document, written by a contemporary of Pericles, presents an opposing view of Athenian democracy

RASCALS FARE BETTER THAN GOOD CITIZENS

I, 1. As for the constitution of the Athenians, their choice of this type of constitution I do not approve, for in choosing thus they chose that rascals should fare better than good citizens. This then is why I do not approve. However, this being their decision, I shall show how well they preserve their constitution, and how well otherwise they are acting where the rest of Greece thinks that they are going wrong.
2. First of all then I shall say that at Athens the poor and the commons seem justly to have the advantage over the well-born and the wealthy; for it is the commons which mans the fleet and has brought the state her power, and the steersmen and the boatswains and the shipmasters and the lookout-men and the ship-builders — these have brought the state her power much rather than the infantry and the well-born and the good citizens. This heing so it seems just that all should have a share in offices filled by lot or by election, and that any citizen who wishes should be allowed to speak. (3.) Then in those offices which bring security to the whole commons if they are in the hands of good citizens, but if not ruin, the commons desires to have no share. They do not think that they ought to have a share through the lot in the supreme commands or in the cavalry com-mands, for the commons realizes that it reaps greater benefit by not having these offices in its own hands, but by allowing men of standing to hold them. All those offices however whose end is pay and family benefits the commons does seek to hold.
4. Secondly, some folk are surprised that everywhere they give the advantage to rascals, the poor, and the democrats rather than to good citizens. This is just where they will be seen to be preserving the democracy. For if the poor and the common folk and the worse elements are treated well, the growth of these classes will exalt the democracy; whereas if the rich and the good citizens are treated well the democrats strengthen their own opponents.
5. In every land the best element is opposed to democracy. Among the best elements there is very little license and injustice, very great discrimination as to what is worthy, while among the commons there is very great ignorance, disor-derliness and rascalit ; for poverty tends to lead them to what is disgraceful as oes lack of education and the ignorance which befalls some men as a result of
lack of means.
6. It may be said that they ought not to have allowed everyone in turn to make speeches or sit on the Council, but only those of the highest capability and quality. But in allowing even rascals to speak they are also very well advised. For if the good citizens made speeches and joined in deliberations, good would result to those like themselves and ill to the democrats. As it is, anyone who wants, a rascally fellow maybe, gets up and makes a speech, and devises what is to the advantage of himself and those like him. (7.) Someone may ask how such a fellow would know what is to the advantage of himself or the commons. They know that this man’s ignorance, rascality and goodwill are more beneficial than the good citizen’s worth, wisdom, and ill will.
8. From such procedure then a city would not attain the ideal, but the de-mocracy would be best preserved thus. For it is the wish of the commons not that the state should be well ordered and the commons itself in complete subjection, but that the commons should have its freedom and be in control; disorderliness is of little consequence to it. From what you consider lack of order come the strength and the liberty of the commons itself. (9.) If on the other hand you investigate good order, first of all you will see that the most capable make laws for them; then the good citizens will keep the rascals in check and will deliberate on matters of state, refusing to allow madmen to sit on the Council or make speeches or attend the general assemblies. Such advantages indeed would very soon throw the com-mons into complete subjection.

LICENSE ALLOWED TO SLAVES AND ALIENS

10. The license allowed to slaves and aliens at Athens is extreme and a blow is forbidden there, nor will a slave make way for you. I shall tell you why this is the custom of the country. If it were legal for a slave or an alien or a freedman to be beaten by a freeman, you would often have taken the Athenian for a slave and struck him; for the commons there does not dress better than the slaves and the aliens, and their general appearance is in no way superior. (11.) If anyone is sur-prised also at their allowing slaves, that is some of them, to live luxuriously and magnificently there, here too they would be seen to act with wisdom. In a naval state slaves must serve for hire, that we may receive the fee for their labor, and we must let them go free. Where there are rich slaves it is no longer profitable that my slave should be afraid of you. In Sparta my slave is afraid of you. If your slave is afraid of me there will be a danger even of his giving his own money to avoid personal risks. (12.) This then is why we placed even slaves on a footing of equality with free men; and we placed aliens on a footing of equality with citizens
Il because the state has need of aliens, owing to the number of skilled trades and because of the fleet. For this reason then we were right to place even the aliens
on a footing of equality. .

THE ALLIES ARE IN THE POSITION OF SLAVES

14. As for the allies, that the Athenians leave home and, as it is thought, bring false accusations against the good citizens and hate them they know that the ruler cannot help but be hated by the ruled, and that if the rich and the good citizens in the various cities have control the rule of the commons at Athens will be very short-lived. This then is why they disfranchise the good citizens, rob them of their wealth, drive them into exile, or put them to death, while they exalt the rascals. The good citizens of Athens protect the good citizens in the allied cities, realizing that it is to their own advantage always to protect the best elements in the various cities. (15.) It might be suggested that the ability of the allies to pay tribute is the strength of Athens. The democrats think it more advantageous that each individual Athenian should ~O55C55 the wealth of the allies and the allies only enough to live on, and continue working without having the power to conspire.

16. The commons of Athens is also thought to be ill-advised in compelling the allies to travel to Athens to have their law-suits tried. They meet this criticism hy reckoning up all the benefits to the Athenian commons that this involves: first of all the receipt of pay out of the court fees all the year round; then while re-maining at home without sending out ships they manage the allied cities, and protect the party of the commons while they ruin their opponents in the courts. If each of the allies tried their law-suits at home, out of hatred for Athenians they would have destroyed those of their own people most friendly to the Athenian commons. (17.) In addition the commons of Athens gains the following advantages from having the allied law-suits tried at Athens. First the five per cent duty levied at the Peiraeus hrings more in to the state; (18.) next, anyone who has a lodging-house is more prosperous, and so is the man who has a couple of hacks or a slave for hire; then the heralds are more prosperous as a result of the visits of the allies. Above all this, if the allies did not come to Athens for their law-suits they would honor only those Athenians who leave home the generals, the naval command-ers, and envoys. As it is, all the allies individually must fawn upon the Athenian commons, realizing that they must come to Athens and appear as defendant or prosecutor hefore the commons and the commons alone, for that forsooth is the law at Athens; and in the law-courts they must make supplications and grasp so-and-so hy the hand as he enters. This then is why the allies are rather in the position of slaves of the Athenian commons. .

CONTROL OF THE SEA

11,3. Of such mainland states as are subject to Athenian rule the large are in subjection hecause of fear, the small simply because of need; there is not a city which does not require both import and export trade, and it will not have that unless it is subject to the rulers of the sea.
7. If there is any need to mention less important facts too, command of the sea and contact with the different people of different countries were the first means of introducing luxurious ways of living. The delicacies of Sicily, Italy, Cy-prus, Egypt, Lydia, Pontus, the Peloponnese, in fact of any country, all converge upon one point as a result of the command of the sea. (8.) Then hearing every tongue they adopted a phrase from this tongue and a phrase from that. The Greeks as a whole enjoy a language, a way of life, and a general appearance which is rathei\ their own, the Athenians a hotch-potch of those of all the Creeks and foreigners. .
11. They alone can possess the wealth of Greeks and foreigners. If a city is rich in shipbuilding timber where will it dispose of it unless it win the consent of the ruler of the sea? What if some city is rich in iron or bronze or cloth? Where will it dispose of it unless it win the consent of the ruler of the sea? These however are just the very things of which my ships are made somebody’s wood, some-body’s iron, somebody’s bronze, somebody’s cloth and somebody’s wax. (12.) Moreover they will not allow our rivals to take their goods elsewhere or (if they try) they will not use the sea. I pass my time in idleness, and because of the sea I have all these products of the earth, whereas no other single city has two of these commodities; the same city does not possess both timber and cloth, but where cloth is plentiful the country is flat and treeless, nor do bronze and iron come from the same city, nor does one city possess two or three of the other com’7nodities, but one has one, another has another. .

DEMOCRACIES ARE IRRESPONSIBLE
 

 17. Again oligarchical states must abide by their alliances and their oaths. If
ey do not keep to the agreement penalties can be exacted from the few who made it. But whenever the commons makes an agreement it can lay the blame on the individual speaker or proposer, and say to the other party that it was not present and does not approve what they know was agreed upon in full assembly; and should it be decided that this is not so, the commons has discovered a hundred excuses for not doing what they may not wish to do. If any ill result from a decision of the commons it lays the blame on a minority for opposing and work-ing its ruin, whereas if any good results they take the credit to themselves.
18. They do not allow caricature and abuse of the commons, lest they should bear themselves evilly spoken of, but they do allow you to caricature any individ-ual you wish to. They well know that generally the man who is caricatured is not of the commons or of the crowd, but someone rich or well born or influential, and that few of the poor and democrats are caricatured, and they only because they are husy-bodies and try to overreach the commons; so they are not angry when such men are caricatured either.

RECAPITULATION

III, 1. The type of the constitution of the Athenians I do not approve, but as
they saw fit to be a democracy in my opinion they preserve their democracy well
by employing the means I have pointed out. .
10. The Athenians are also thought to be ill advised because they take sides with the worst elements in cities divided by faction. They do this with good rea-son. If they sided with the better elements they would not side with those who bold the same opinions as themselves, for in no city is the better element well inclined to the commons, but in each the worse element is well inclined to the commons; like favors like. This then is why the Athenians side with the elements akin to themselves.

From Nels M. Bailkey, Readings in Ancient History (Lexington, MA: DC Heath, 1987)