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STUDY GUIDE FOR EXAM #3

I. OLD KINGDOM: PYRAMID ARCHITECTURE

Pyramid of Sneferu at Meidum (4th Dynasty)

Important transitional stage from stepped pyramid design to true pyramid design
Begun as stepped pyramid, then steps filled out to create true pyramid
Creation of central burial chamber inside pyramid
Innovations that later became standard elements in traditional pyramid complex:

Small chapel on east side of pyramid
Traces of enclosure wall
Causeway

Giza Pyramids (4th Dynasty)

Pyramid of Khufu (Cheops) ("Great Pyramid")
Pyramid of Khafre (Chephren)

Sphinx

Pyramid of Menkaure (Mycerinus)

Main elements of traditional (true) pyramid complex:

Valley temple
Covered causeway
Mortuary (funerary) temple
Temenos, or enclosure wall

Internal architecture of Khufu's Pyramid:

Subterranean chamber
"Queen's" chamber

Ka statue probably placed in wall niche

King's chamber

Approached by Great Gallery
Granite sarcophagus

Interior walls of pyramids are bare (uninscribed) until 5th Dynasty

Pyramid Texts

Construction of pyramids

Ramps
Nile used to transport building supplies

Natural harbor served as delivery area

Main building supplies used to construct pyramids

Limestone
Granite

Nature of workforce

General labor force were peasants (not slaves)
Crafstsmen, technicians, artisans
Compulsory public service
Excavations of workshop areas and workers' cemeteries

Workers' cemetery at Giza

Southeast of pyramids
Excavated in 1990
Types of tombs:

Tombs of mudbrick & granite for laborers & their families
Limestone tombs for craftsmen, artisans, and supervisors

Domed shaped tombs very common

Bakeries & fish-processing plant at Giza

Bakeries:

Two bakeries excavated in 1991
Each about 17 feet long & 8 feet wide
Ceramic, bell-shaped bread pots (bedja)
Ceramic vats

Fish-processing plant:

Also excavated in 1991
Large mudbrick building to which bakeries were attached
Parallel troughs & benches
Remains of fish parts embedded in floor (gills, fins, cranial parts)

What does pyramid architecture suggest to us about Old Kingdom society?

Pyramid-shaped tombs employed throughout Old & Middle Kingdoms

Quality & size decline dramatically after 4th Dynasty
Greater emphasis on funerary temples after 4th Dynasty

Expanded in size, occupying entire east side of pyramid

Architectural changes from stepped pyramid design to true pyramid design suggest changes in image of kingship

Image of king as supreme teritorial ruler (Djoser's Stepped Pyramid)

Ceremonial courts (e.g. South Court, Heb-Sed Court)

Image of divine kingship in association with sun-god, Re (Khufu's Pyramid)

True pyramid design captures sun's rays in stone
Ceremonial courts disappear
Burial in highest chamber inside pyramid (King's chamber)
Mortuary (funerary) temple moves to east side of pyramid

II. FIRST INTERMEDIATE PERIOD

9th-middle of 11th Dynasty in Manetho
Ca. 2181-2040 BC
Main written sources:

Literary texts, e.g. Lamentations of Ipuwer
Brief autobiographical inscriptions
King lists
Manetho

Period of political unrest & state decentralization

Rise in power of local governors (nomarchs)
Archaeological evidence:

Tomb relief of local administrator of all livestock at Dendera
Tomb model of soldiers from tomb of Mesehti at Asyut

III. MIDDLE KINGDOM

Middle of 11th-13th Dynasty in Manetho
Ca.2040-1782 BC
Egypt reunified by Mentuhotep II

Curbed power of nomarchs (provincial governors)
Established capital at Thebes

Amunemhet (12th Dynasty)

Redistricted nomes (administrative districts)
Moved capital from Thebes to Lisht

Highly bureaucratic state with strongly centralized institutions
Obsession with bureaucracy can be seen in architectural projects:

Construction of pyramid town of Kahun

Pyramid town of Kahun (el-Lahun)

Location
Excavated by Flinders Petrie in late 19th century
Function of town

Built near pyramid of Senusret II (12th Dynasty)
"Pyramid town"
Temple of royal cult (southwest corner of town)
Ancient name of town: Hetep-Senusret ("Senusret is at peace")
Kahun archives

Temple archive (Temple of royal cult) & town archive
Suggest that function of town extended beyond that of "pyramid town"

Architecture of town

Strict rectangular, gridiron plan
Two main districts:

Eastern District
Western District

Eastern District

Large houses or mansions, with 70-80 rooms
House on "Acropolis"

Preservation of stairways
Possible function
Official visits of king

Reconstruction of a typical large house

Use of house models from tomb of Meket-ra at Thebes (11th Dynasty)
Internal plan:

Adheres to strict rectangular plan
Main residential part (core-house)

Two master bedrooms
Main garden court
Porch (portico) supported by columns

Granaries

Supported much of Kahun population

Western District

Small houses, with 4-12 rooms
Interior plans vary considerably

Entrance passage
Main room
Granary

Alterations made by residents

Two or more houses combined
Columns inserted

What does Kahun tell us about Middle Kingdom state?

Extremely structured view of society
Town created & maintained by administration

Most of population dependent upon granaries in large houses

Mathematical calculations to control every aspect of economic life (grid plan of town)
Control human behavior & property by means of bureaucratic framework

Bureaucratic ideals of Middle Kingdom state could not be sustained

Kahun society more complex than model of society constructed by state
Structural modifications made by residents of small houses
Town archive

Wide range of occupations
Census records

Changing household of Hori & Sneferu
Reveals variable nature of Kahun households

IV. SECOND INTERMEDIATE PERIOD

Dynasties 14-17 (Manetho)
Ca. 1782-1570 BC
Period of political instability
Rule of foreign kings, probably from Syria-Palestine region

Hyksos: "rulers of foreign lands"

Main historical sources:

Manetho
Inscriptions

Kamose stele

Describes battles between Egyptians and Hyksos

King lists

Archaeological sources:

Excavations at Hyksos capital in eastern Delta (Avaris)

Important turning point in Egyptian history

New ideas brought by Hyksos
More sophisticated bronze technology
Traded silver from mines in Asia
New military technology

V. NEW KINGDOM

Dynasties 18-20 (Manetho)
Ca. 1570-1069 BC
King Ahmose expels Hyksos

Ceremonial axe of King Ahmose

Defining characteristics of New Kingdom

Expansion abroad & centralization of bureaucratic power
Capital relocated from Lisht back to Memphis
Thebes emerged as major administrative & religious center

Focused on god, Amun ("The Hidden One")

Became major imperial power in the Near Eastern region
Military state

Archaeology of Avaris

Provides insight into Ahmose's military campaigns against Hyksos
Excavations conducted by Austrian Archaeological Institute (Manfred Bietak)
Three main areas of excavation at Avaris

H-I
H-II
H-III

Archaeological remains at Avaris date from end of Second Intermediate Period to beginning of New Kingdom
Evidence of military occupation by Ahmose after fall of Avaris

Postholes
Flint arrowheads
Bone arrow tips
Slingshot projectiles
Burials

Excavations at H-II:

Remains of Hyksos citadel partially destroyed by Ahmose
Ahmose built large fortified palace on raised platform, with central court
Remains of wall paintings

Made by artists from Minoan Crete
Characteristic Minoan style: bull-leaping
Important cultural contacts with Crete

Excavations at H-III:

Grain silos

Royal tomb architecture

Major changes in New Kingdom
Location of royal tombs

Valley of the Kings in Thebes

Geographical background on Thebes

Located on West Bank of Nile across from Luxor
One of the largest & richest archaeological sites

Burials of New Kingdom kings as well as noblemen, officials, priests
Royal mortuary (funerary) temples

Three main geographical regions

Cultivated land between Nile & desert

Few traces of archaeological material

Low-lying desert

On edges of cultivated land
Location of royal mortuary (funerary) temples

Barren desert cliffs & mountains

Location of Valley of the Kings, where rulers were buried

Architectural features of royal tombs

Tombs cut into rock of limestone cliffs
Burial chamber reached through series of chambers & hallways
Tombs stressed association of king with sun-god
Floor plans of tombs change during New Kingdom

18th Dynasty tombs incorporate 90-degree angle (bent-axis)

Tomb of Amunhotep IV (KV 35)
90-degree angle symbolizes separation of night (death) and day (rebirth)
Contrast between night & day reflected in funerary texts

19th & 20th Dynasty tombs have straight-axis (linear) design

Tomb of Rameses IV (KV 2)
Change to straight-axis design related to king's association with sun-god
Life-giving rays of sun penetrating into burial chamber & awakening king from eternal slumber

Mortuary (funerary) temples

Separated from tomb
Located on edge of cultivated land (low-lying desert)
Mortuary temple of Rameses II (Ramesseum)
Built in imitation of New Kingdom temples dedicated to Amun