CHAPTER 4

SPATIAL AND TEMPORAL-SEQUENTIAL ORDERING

1. INTRODUCTION
   1. Spatial ordering and temporal-sequential ordering are two ordering systems in which data or information may be arranged
      1. Facilitate the processing of incoming information, the long and short term storage of needed facts and procedures, and the output of various "products" or intellectual activities
      2. Working together, these two systems greatly facilitate the learning, academic productivity, and student's overall efficiency
      3. When impaired significant obstacles to learning and working may result
   2. Spatial ordering arranges data in a gestalt or configuration
   3. Temporal-sequential ordering arranges data in a sequence or "linear chunk"
   4. Spatial and temporal-sequential ordering systems operate a five distinct levels
      1. Processing (perception)
      2. Memory
      3. Production
      4. Organization
      5. Higher-order cognition
         
         
2. SPATIAL ORDERING
   1. Much of our experience with processing has spatial overtones
   2. We can interpret spatial information in two ways
      1. Visually
      2. Through stereognosis, spatial processing without visual input
   3. Visual-spatial ordering is likely to be the most relevant to the greatest number of childhood pursuits
      
      
3. SPATIAL PROCESSING (PERCEPTION)
   1. Functions
      1. Researchers in spatial processing functions are Thurstone, Frostig, and Gardner
      2. Thurstone, a pioneer in characterizing various aspects of "intelligence" listed a series of "primary mental abilities"
         1. Perceptual speed
         2. Spacial perception
      3. Thurstone subdivided the concept of spatial perception into three elements:
         1. The capacity to recognize a particular object when it is seen from varying angles
         2. The capacity to picture movement or internal displacement among parts of visual placement among parts of a visual pattern
         3. The capacity to view these relationships from the perspective of the observer's own body
      4. Frostig was influential because she stressed the importance of visual perceptual abilities as a requisite to effective learning
      5. Frostig divides spatial abilities into the following components:
         1. Visual-motor coordination
         2. Figure-ground perception
         3. Perception of constancy
         4. Perception of position in space
         5. Perception of spatial relationships
      6. Gardner characterizes "spatial intelligence" as having the following characteristics which are independent of one another and could develop or break down separately:
         1. The ability to recognize instances of the same element
         2. The ability to transform or to recognize a transformation of one element into another
         3. The capacity to conjure up mental imagery and then to transform that imagery
         4. The capacity to produce a graphic likeness of spatial information
            
            
   2. Spatial Processing Dysfunction
      1. Spatial processing dysfunction could have the following possible effects on learning
         1. In reading possible delay in sight vocabulary acquisition
         2. In spelling, possible difficulties with visualization and phonetically correct spelling errors
         3. In math, some difficulty with geometric concepts and appreciation of spatial attributes
         4. Problems interpreting maps, diagrams, graphs, and complex charts
         5. Possible left-right confusion
         6. Weak facial recognition
         7. Deficiency in certain types of nonverbal reasoning
         8. Trouble forming mental imagery
      2. In evaluating a child's spatial processing, distinguish between two related aspects:
         1. The appreciation of sophisticated spatial configurations
         2. The integration of many visual details presented as a gestalt
      3. Spatial processing dysfunction may sometimes be confused with attention deficits involving paying attention to large amounts of visual detail.
         
         
4. SPATIAL MEMORY
   1. Functions
      1. Individuals need to preserve visual information in memory. Such storage takes the form of
         1. Image representations which are stored depictions of previously encountered spatial patterns such as the appearance of a particular spelling word
         2. Image generation is a process where the representations can be recognized or recalled on demand
   2. Spatial Memory Dysfunctions
      1. Some children exhibit weakness of "visual memory." As a result they are susceptible to problems with:
         1. Spelling and writing
         2. Certain kinds of visual recall that are needed in mathematics
         3. Accurate memory for configurations
         4. Remembering images too slowly and with excessive effort
            
            
5. SPATIAL PRODUCTION
   1. Functions
      1. Kephart stressed what he called the "perceptual-motor match" advancing the hypothesis that a continuing interaction takes place between motor performance and visual perception.
         1. The hypothesis has had therapeutic implications, as some professionals have believed that one can enhance spatial processing by using various reinforcing gross and fine motor activities
         2. This view has been strongly challenged
      2. The following may contribute to production
         1. A keen awareness of spatial interacting detail
         2. A sensitivity to subtle internal relationships
         3. A notion of where a spatial array begins and ends
   2. Spatial Production Dysfunctions
      1. Academic effects for people who have difficulties with spatial production
         1. Difficulties copying from the board
         2. Spelling difficulties
         3. Writing difficulties
         4. Keeping numbers in a column
      2. Non-academic effects
         1. Difficulty with perceptual-motor tasks such as fixing and constructing
         2. Difficulty with spatial planning
         3. Possible athletic deficiencies such as catching, hitting, or kicking a ball
            
            
6. SPATIAL ORGANIZATION
   1. Functions
      1. The ability to organize material is at the core of spatial organization
      2. Children with effective spatial organizational abilities are able to impart order to the various objects they need for learning and productivity as well as play
      3. Examples of spatial ordering in the everyday life of a student include:
         1. Arranging written output on a page
         2. Organizing a desk top
         3. Arranging and maintaining consistent storage habits in drawers
         4. Keeping a notebook in an orderly fashion
         5. Remembering where you left things
         6. Remembering what to take to school and what to bring home
   2. Spatial Organization Dysfunctions
      1. Children that have a spatial organization dysfunction are often described as highly disorganized
         1. They frequently lose/misplace things
         2. Find it hard to organize a notebook
         3. Some may appear unkempt because they have trouble arranging clothing and engaging in daily routines to stay clean
         4. May leave work behind or misplace it
      2. These children form virtually no visual associative linkage between an object and the site which it was last seen
      3. It is essential to recognize the close interaction between weak production controls and spatial disorganization. These children may:
         1. Undertake so many tasks or activities with little or no planning or self-monitoring
         2. Exhibit both attention problems and spatial ordering weakness
            
            
7. SPATIAL ORDERING AND HIGHER-ORDER COGNITION
   1. Functions
      1. Spatial ordering interacts with a multitude of higher order cognitive activities
      2. Well developed spatial ordering facilitates the formation of nonverbal concepts
      3. Spatial ordering contributes to various problem-solving skills
      4. Children that are strong in this area may:
         1. Be very good at figuring out how things work, e.g., finding out why a computer doesn't work or assembling a model car
         2. Be good a discerning and creating rules relating to nonverbal phenomena
         3. Observe consistent visual relationships between objects or events that can be used to predict occurrences
         4. Be highly competent at understanding math rules or geometric constancies
         5. Related to creativity of brainstorming
   2. Spatial Ordering and Higher-order Cognition Dysfunctions
      1. Children with deficiencies of spatial ordering may reveal the following gaps in higher order cognition:
         1. Problems with certain concepts in math and science
         2. Weak mechanical aptitude
         3. A tendency to perform many mechanical tasks the hard way
         4. Difficulty in art and craft classes
         5. Trouble assimilating and applying rules in science and math
            
            
8. ASSESSMENT OF SPATIAL ORDERING
   1. Direct Observation/Testing
      1. Copying of geometric forms
         1. Bender Visual Motor Gestalt Test
         2. Beery Developmental Test of Visual Motor Integration
         3. Benton Visual Retention Test
      2. Contaminating influences that effect copying
         1. Inattention and impulsiveness
         2. Fine motor dysfunctions
         3. Inability to process quantity of sophisticated detail
         4. Inexperience (lack of exposure to copying activities)
         5. Emotional interference - the Bender Gestalt Test can be used to detect "emotional indicators"
      3. Some tests of spatial ordering minimize these contaminants:
         1. Motor-free assessment requiring matching designs instead of drawing
         2. Embedded figures tasks
         3. Altered figures tasks
      4. WISC-III
         1. Most commonly used intelligence test for kids
         2. Several subtests involve spatial abilities
            1. Object Assembly and Block Design subtests identify weak spatial or visual-spatial processing
            2. Mazes subtest identifies weak spatial planning or formation of strategies
   2. Multiple Perspectives and Sources of Evidence for Assessment
      1. A case history can reveal special strengths or avoidance of such activities as:
         1. Ball sports, arts and crafts, mechanical pursuits
         2. Using scissors, tracing, coloring, etc.
      2. A case history can reveal information about
         1. tracking possessions
         2. notebook organization
         3. neat desk
         4. having necessary materials available
      3. Direct testing of visual attention - vigilance or continuous performance tests (see p. 51)
      4. Direct testing of motor-free visual discrimination and left-right discrimination
      5. Direct testing of visual perception motor function - copying developmentally appropriate geometric designs
      6. Direct testing of visual memory
      7. Direct testing of non-verbal reasoning and problem solving such as tests of mental rotation/manipulation of imagery/patterns (e.g., Ravens Progressive Matrices)
      8. Evaluation of academic work
      9. The Kaufman ABC distinguishes between sequential and spatial processing and has distinct scales for each. Subtests for spatial processing include"
         1. Assessment of facial recognition
         2. Gestalt Closure subtest - requires naming an object or scene depicted in partially completed inkblot
         3. Triangles subtest requires assembling identical triangles into abstract patterns to match a model
         4. Matrix Analogies subtest requires selection of meaningful picture or abstract design to complete a visual analogy
         5. Photo Series subtest requires photos to be placed in correct order to tell a story
   3. Patterns of Academic Dysfunction
      1. Error patterns in reading, spelling or writing
         1. Spelling inaccuracies that are good phonetic approximations but visually inaccurate
         2. Difficulty forming letters
         3. Reversals of letters
         4. Difficulty arranging numbers in columns
         5. Helter skelter use of space
      2. Spatial processing problems might be suspected in a child who is better at understanding what he reads than decoding the words. Such a child may have strong language skills but
         1. Weak memory
         2. Poor spatial processing
         3. Associated weak appreciation of visual attributes and details within words
            
            
9. TEMPORAL-SEQUENTIAL ORDERING
   1. Requires discernment, preservation, and imposition of serial order
   2. Plays a role in diverse activities
      1. Programming synchronized motor movements in sports
      2. Interpreting complex syntax
      3. Memorizing multiplication tables
   3. Time is a major medium for sequential organization
   4. Sequential detail may be processed visually, auditorily, or kinesthetically
   5. Sequential awareness is critical for production
      
      
10. TEMPORAL SEQUENTIAL PROCESSING (PERCEPTION) AND MEMORY
    1. Functions
       1. It is often impossible to separate temporal-sequential perception from temporal sequential memory because appreciation of serial order demands that it be preserved in memory (short-term, active working, or long-term). So they are discussed together in this section
       2. Developmental aspects of temporal-sequential processing
          1. Appreciation of units of time, relative duration, ability to tell time
          2. Capacity to follow increasingly extended multi-step directions/explanations
          3. Ability to understand and retain multi-step procedures
          4. Increasing ability to hold long sequences in short-term memory
          5. Capacity to manipulate sequences in active working memory
          6. Capacity to consolidate and retrieve repertoire of sequences in long term memory (alphabet, days of the week, etc)
    2. Temporal Sequential Processing (Perception) and Memory Dysfunctions
       1. Signs of dysfunction
          1. Varying combinations of difficulties with time and appreciation, storage, and manipulation of serial order
             1. Poor time concepts and difficulty with temporal prepositions
             2. Slow learning to tell time
             3. Delayed mastery of experiential sequences such as days of week, months of year, etc.
          2. Trouble interpreting multi-step directions
          3. Deficient mastery of multiplication tables
          4. Problems understanding certain complex syntax
          5. Early problems with word segmentation and reblending
          6. Problems with spelling and/or decoding of multisyllable words
       2. Child with temporal-sequential problems can develop secondary attention problems
          1. Paying attention does not yield usable, storable data
          2. So attention is not reinforced, and child becomes fidgety or fatigued
       3. As school years pass, most experiential sequencing problems abate, but some do not
          1. Trouble mastering order of classes
          2. Trouble opening a combination lock
          3. Frustration in geometry - child perceives geometrical constructs but is confused in understanding and creating proofs
       4. Associated language problems
          1. Effects of sequential processing problems on receptive language is variable - in some cases only time related vocabulary and syntax are affected
          2. Effects of sequential processing problems on expressive language may be limited to time related syntax or a combination of generalized difficulties in language processing and sequencing weaknesses may cause severe problems
          3. Assessment - PEEX-2 contains a series of complex sentences specifically eliciting difficulties with interpretation of time.
       5. Children with strengths in spatial processing and weakness in sequential processing may have characteristic style preferences
          1. Strong "right brain," holistic, big-picture
          2. Difficulty with detail-attentive, sequential, analytical, linguistic style necessary in school
11. TEMPORAL SEQUENTIAL PRODUCTION
    1. Functions
       1. Motor procedures depend on sequential organization as a fundamental function
          1. Fine motor procedures require precise, sequential patterns of muscle contraction and relaxation, e.g. while forming letters while writing
          2. Gross motor procedures require complex serial motor movements (e.g., sports)
          3. Oral motor functions require sequentially patterned movement of the oral musculature so that component phonemes are arranged in a particular order to form words, sentences, narratives
       2. Non-motor procedures that require logical sequencing:
          1. Math activities such as balancing an equation, performing long division etc.
          2. Diverse forms of expression requiring the generation of logical sequence
             1. Logical flow of events or ideas in writing
             2. Reporting of scientific experiments
          3. Musical composition
          4. Description of historical events
          5. Compilation of geometric proofs
          6. Prediction and planning of long-range projects
    2. Temporal Sequential Production Dysfunctions
       1. A child with temporal sequential production problems may have difficulties with complex sequential motor tasks, such as sports or crafts
          1. These may be the result of an inability to appreciate, integrate, recall, and implement the active sequences in the correct order
          2. they may master motor skills eventually, but this may require over-learning
          3. These children dare delayed in achieving automatization of motor tasks and incoordination
       2. This child may have speech problems in sound sequencing
          1. This may be the result of trouble recalling or arranging the order of motor movements to create intelligible, meaningful words and sentences
          2. This child may have difficulty with both sounds and syntax
          3. They may have good vocabulary skills, but these are independent of sequential production.
       3. This child may have difficulty with narrative, with summarizing, with sequencing events or ideas when writing and in oral retelling of a story
       4. This child may display poor use of time, lateness, and difficulty scheduling the stages for completing a task
    3. This child may be able to play a musical instrument well even though sequential organization is needed because music provides immediate feedback and has tonal and rhythmic clues and harmonic meaning

    
    

12. TEMPORAL-SEQUENTIAL ORGANIZATION
    1. Functions
       1. Temporal-sequential organization forms the basis of a student's organizational skills
       2. This form of ordering is necessary for effective time management, and for the development of task approaches that entail many logical, manageable steps
       3. This sense of time and sequence is critical for:
          1. Meeting deadlines and arriving on time
          2. Being aware of the passage of time
          3. Knowing how long something will take
          4. Allocating time properly
          5. Knowing the best order in which to undertake the steps in a task
          6. Organizing material in a logical sequence
          7. Adhering to schedules
    2. Temporal-sequential Organization Dysfunctions
       1. Children with temporal-sequential disorganization often have difficulty with all of the above
       2. A child with attention deficits may mimic some behaviors associated with temporal-spatial problems (i.e., disorganization) so further investigation is necessary to find other signs and to which direction they point.
          
          
13. HIGHER ORDER THINKING AND TEMPORAL -SEQUENTIAL ORDERING
    1. Functions
       1. The role of temporal sequencing in higher order thinking is speculative
       2. Many sophisticated cognitive activities are organized sequentially
          1. Understanding cause/effect
          2. Inductive and deductive logic
          3. Scientific processes (nuclear energy, photosynthesis, osmosis)
          4. Problems solving
    2. Higher Order Thinking and Temporal -Sequential Ordering Dysfunctions
       1. Students with temporal-sequential problems may have difficulty with the aspects of higher level thinking above
       2. Students with strengths in higher level thinking may be able to override any potentially negative effects of poor sequencing.
          
          
14. ASSESSMENT OF SEQUENTIAL ORDERING AND PRODUCTION
    1. This assessment requires combining historical data with direct observation
    2. Many of the signs pointing to difficulty with sequential ordering and production may be mistaken for other developmental dysfunctions
    3. An accurate assessment of sequencing abilities includes:
       1. History of difficulties acquiring skills that necessitate sequential processing or production
       2. Evidence of the dysfunction based on observations of a variety of sequencing tasks (verbal, nonverbal, visual and motor)
       3. Patterns of academic dysfunction consistent with poor sequential function as a contributing factor
    4. Within these assessment measures there are key components
       1. Historical Data
          1. Historical evidence of the ease of delay in the mastery of temporal prepositions and other time-laden terminology
          2. Historical evidence of the child's abilities regarding multi-step processing and production (tasks requiring multi-step processes, understanding instructions, retelling a story in the correct order)
          3. Historical background of time management difficulties
       2. Direct testing of short-term sequential memory
       3. Academic evidence of a problem
    5. Direct Observation/Testing
       1. Experiential sequencing; this includes temporal vocabulary, days of the week, time, alphabet, months of the year, etc.
       2. Auditory sequencing; this includes the child repeating a sequence of numbers, words, or sounds
       3. Visual and motor sequencing; this can entail having the child line up a series of blocks in the same order as the instructor.
       4. Motor sequencing; This can be tested by having the student repeat a number of finger movements
    6. Possible Contaminations - Testing for sequential disorganization is susceptible to misinterpretation and be confused with
       1. Attention problems -It may be confused with attention deficits
       2. Generalized memory problems - It can be hard to determine the difference between generalized memory ability and sequential memory ability so the testing should include tests of short term memory so generalized memory problems can be ruled out
       3. Modality weakness - It can also be confused with a modality weakness (e.g., auditory processing weakness)
       4. Speed of processing - The time allowed for the testing can make a difference - some children may seem disorganized when they have to respond within time limits so allow plenty of time
       5. Meaningful or non-meaningful data - The child may seem disorganized when working with one or the other, so use both
       6. Generalized motor problems - Activities that measure motor sequential organization may be contaminated with other aspects of motor coordination. All aspects of motor function should be assessed to rule out other motor problems
       7. Problems with strategy use - Some children have difficulty with sequencing tasks because they don't use rehearsal strategies. Examiner should check to see if child is using good memory strategies
       8. Other factors - There are other general factors that may influence observations such as motivation, interest, anxiety, and test-taking ability.
    7. Patterns of Academic Dysfunction
       1. A child with a weakness in sequential processing and production can be expected to have academic difficulties in following directions, performing multi-step math problems or organizing work effectively. The evaluator should try to determine if testing results match up with and clarify academic performance
       2. This problem often does not exist in isolation, and the pattern of sequencing problems may change depending on what other problems (see above) the child might have.
          
          
15. BRAIN LOCATIONS OF SPATIAL AND TEMPORAL-SEQUENTIAL ORDERING
    1. Much is known about the location of spatial functions
       1. The right hemisphere is specialized to deal with visually presented data
       2. The occipital loves and thalamus also play important roles.
    2. Much less is known about the anatomy of temporal-sequential organization
       1. It is likely that the functions in this construct are more diffused in their location
       2. The anterior thalamus participates in temporal sequencing
       3. The frontal lobes are part of time and order arrangement
       4. In most people the left hemisphere is specialized for sequences
          
          
16. MANAGEMENT
    1. Management of Spatial Dysfunctions
       1. Although spatial processing can occur in almost any modality, visual spatial processing is most important and relevant
       2. Direct, isolated visual-perceptual training must be approached cautiously
          1. Historically it was done in isolation and produced "splinter skills" that did not transfer to academics
          2. Some of the more extreme versions of "visual motor training" may actually be harmful
       3. Strategies that are designed to bypass the visual-spatial weakness can be helpful, e.g.,
          1. Verbal mediation (talking through what the child sees)
          2. Careful phonetic analysis of words
          3. Where possible convert visual-spatial tasks into verbal, sequential tasks
       4. Direct, isolated training of spatial awareness and sorting of visual information may not be as important as was once thought.
       5. Strategies that are designed to help children with spatial awareness can be helpful, e.g.,
          1. Using graph paper in the initial stages of teaching writing
          2. Verbal mediation - talking through good use of the space on the page
          3. Multisensory instruction (tracing, feeling, saying) for letter formation
          4. Phonics approach to decoding
          5. Use of structural analysis for multisyllable words
          6. Special help in reading maps, interpreting graphs, charts, and diagrams (verbal mediation)
          7. Special help with geometry
          8. In spelling, emphasis on spelling rules and less emphasis on visualizing how words are spelled
    2. Management of Sequential Dysfunctions
       1. Direct, isolated training is sequencing is probably of little value
       2. For a list of recommended strategies see Levine p. 133-134
    3. Helping Students Develop Strategies and Organizational Skills
       1. Children with spatial or temporal-sequential problems often have difficulty with organization.
       2. Research suggests that children can learn and apply strategies
       3. For a list of recommended methods that aid organization see Levine, p. 135-137
    4. Spatial and Sequential Ordering: Normal Development
       1. Spatial and sequential ordering abilities are developmental, improving as children grow older
       2. Children develop a preference for processing information either spatially or sequentially
       3. Research suggests this is a genuine cognitive style and not a dysfunction
       4. These cognitive styles have implication for teaching, since a mismatch between learning and teaching styles may put children at risk
       5. Developmentally, the functions of spatial and sequential ordering become more integrated with attention, language, memory, motor output and higher order cognition. In normal children, when one developmental function is slightly weak the others compensate.